Abstract:
This thesis presents an extensive experimental investigation into the impact of multiple charged heavy ions on thick targets. The focus is on the resulting X-ray energy shifts and peak broadening due to multiple ionization (MI) and molecular orbital formation (MO) across a range of particle energies. The modification of atomic parameters is studied through observed spectral changes. The resulting X-ray production cross sectionsmeasured using the thick-target formalismare applied in advanced MeV ion beam analysis (IBA) techniques, including MeV Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (MeVSIMS) and Time-of-Flight (MeV-ToF) spectrometry. A systematic series of experiments was conducted to analyze the X-ray emission yields from thick targets composed of Ti, Fe, Ni, and coinage metals (Cu, Ag, and Au), induced by energetic protons (H⁺) in the 0.7 MeV 3.5 MeV range. These initial studies were essential to validate the experimental system and standardize the Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) setup. Additional bombardments using helium ions (Heq⁺ ; qᵢ = 12) in the 1.0 MeV 3.5 MeV range were performed to further verify system accuracy and align with first-order direct ionization theories. Further experimentation involved heavier ions, including carbon (Cq⁺ ; qᵢ = 15) and copper (Cuq⁺ ; qᵢ = 12), bombarded on thick targets using a 5 MV tandem accelerator at NCP, Islamabad. The mechanical energy of particles was determined via elastic backscattering spectroscopy (EBS) using thin Al2O3 film, while PIXE detector efficiency was measured using radioactive sources. Standardization employed the H-value method with a known concentration of standard reference material (SRM) bombarded by 2.5 MeV protons. A comparative study of H⁺ and Heq⁺ irradiation was conducted to examine equilibrium charge state (ECS) effects and multiple ionization (MI) effects, with results compared against standard ionization models including PWBA, ECPSSR, EC, and BEA. Carbon ions (Cq⁺) irradiated thick coinage targets made of Cu, Ag, and Au in the 0.922 MeV range showed substantial peak shifts and broadening, confirming the strong multiple ionization (MI) effects. Consequently, fluorescence yields, Coster-Kronig transitions, and transition rates were adjusted and compiled based on function of equilibrium charge state (ECS) of the energetic carbon ions. The measured X-ray production cross sections were compared with theoretical models, revealing that charge state effects become more pronounced at higher energies especially in copper, silver and gold. The measured results were also compared with legends and uncertainties were discussed. The ECPSSR model accurately predicted cross-section behavior at lower ion energies and charge states, while both ECPSSR and BEA exhibited strong agreement for thick-target systems. To investigate quasi-molecular orbital (MO) behavior in symmetric systems (Z₁ ≈ Z₂), super-heavy ions (Cuq⁺) were bombarded onto thick targets with energies ranging from 2 to 8 MeV. Significant spectral shifts and broadening were observed, which attributed to the combined effects of multiple ionization (MI) and molecular orbital (MO). First order ionization cross-section calculations were refined using modified K-shell fluorescence yields, showing reasonable agreement with experimental data, especially at lower energies and in quasi-collision systems such as CuTi and CuFe. However, theoretical predictions from the BEA and ECPSSR-UA models showed significant deviations in this energy range. In symmetric or near-symmetric systems like CuCu and CuNi, the Behavior of X-ray production cross sections differed notably from asymmetric systems, likely due to the formation of molecular orbitals formation and electron screening effects resulting from the dwell time of interaction on the order of 10-17 seconds. Multiple ionization (MI) effects were also observed to be dominant at higher energies. Electron capture (EC) and equilibrium charge state (ECS) were also discussed in symmetric and non-symmetric interactions. These findings highlight the challenges faced by current theoretical models in accurately predicting sub-shell X-ray production cross sections at high ion energies and charge states, highlighting. They underscore the necessity for further theoretical refinement.